ABSTRACT
Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald was the responsible individual who implemented Great Britain’s China policy from 1896 to 1900. MacDonald was not the usual career diplomat but rather a soldier by training and profession. What diplomatic experience he had before China came during his military and consular service in Africa. Until 1892 MacDonald remained a bachelor. He doubtless recognized, however, that for advancement in a foreign service career, a wife was helpful. At the age of 40 Sir Claude married. Ethel Armstrong was the daughter of Major W. Cairns Armstrong of the 15th Regiment and the widow of P. Craigie Robertson of the Indian Civil Service. Regardless of the adverse reactions to his assignment, the Times duly announced MacDonald’s appointment on 13 January 1896. He replaced Sir Nicholas O’Conor who had been asked to leave by the Manchu court and who was subsequently assigned to St. Petersburg.
