ABSTRACT
The struggles in Rome had left Octavian the sole surviving ruler in 30 bc. He was elected consul several years in succession and he also enjoyed his triumviral powers. At first, the Roman emperors were informally referred to by the popular name ‘Caesar’, after Julius Caesar. The German word Kaiser and the Russian word tsar are both derived from it. At some time in the late imperial age ‘Caesar’ became the official title of the heir to the throne. The Romans of the first centuries of the imperial age also used the title princeps, which was not an official term but rather a form of address. The most prestigious offices for senators were governorship of Asia and Africa and prefecture of Rome, with a second consulate to confirm their status. Some of the old honorary offices, such as the aedileship and the tribunate of the plebs, became honourable sinecures.
