ABSTRACT
Goals are a primary construct in theories of organization at virtually all levels of analysis.
Goalsetting (Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981) and its formalization in programs of
management by objectives is one of the oldest traditions at the individual and group
levels of analysis. Managers are exhorted to provide goals that are specific, measurable,
challenging, reasonable, and timely. Goals are also a key factor linking effort and
performance in expectancy theories of motivation (Vroom, 1964). Goals are implicit in
the concept of desirable behavior, which is important in theories of organization behavior
such as reinforcement theory (Skinner; 1938) and organization behavior modification
(Luthans & Kreitner, 1985). Strategic management with its focus on mission statements,
corporate goals, tactical plans, and operational goals clearly emphasizes the goal as a key
concept. Traditionally, managers have been urged to define the organization’ s purpose in
a mission and to support this mission with corporate goals; strategies serve as
comprehensive road maps to how goals can be achieved (Mintzberg & Waters, 1985).
