ABSTRACT
In the causal model, the two factors at Echelon 4 which are purported to be proximal causes of pronunciation level, PL, are teaching/learning, T/L, and pronunciation aptitude, gp. These two primary causal factors are sometimes discussed under other labels. For example, Vellutino (1979) has talked about an “experiential” factor (teaching/learning) and a “constitutional” factor (pronunciation aptitude). Similarly, Berninger and Abbott (1994) discussed a “treatment” factor (teaching/learning) and a “genetic” factor (pronunciation aptitude). The causality of both the teaching/learning factor and pronunciation aptitude factor on pronunciation level, PL, was summarized by Neisser (1983) when he said the following:
This chapter is mainly consistent with conventional wisdom about how to improve the ability of students to correctly identify words. However, it contains some unexpected interpretations. For example, in the causal model presented in Chapter 1, T/L and gp are the two proximal causes of PL and there are no distal causes presented, yet, a case will be made for PL also having a distal cause. Another example of an unexpected interpretation involves phonological awareness (PA), that is, PA is interpreted as being of relatively minor importance with respect to causing high and low reading achievement.
