ABSTRACT
The EU’s political system is, then, characterised by the limited effectiveness of national parliaments and interest groups within that system. Participation is also affected, however, by the EU acting as a policy innovator, establishing new regulatory frameworks, standards, and policy projects. The expansion of the EU’s competence inherently affects socio-economic relations at the national level; as it is meant to. Again, however, the picture that results is full of contrasts. The scope for public participation varies significantly between policy sectors. In many instances, EU policy initiatives have to some degree set higher market standards, led to stronger forms of social protection, heightened environmental safeguards, eased access for the disadvantaged to the labour market, promoted cultural preservation and innovation, and facilitated new educational opportunities. Each of these aspects of EU action can be related to a broad, socio-economic conception of citizenship rights and community participation.
