ABSTRACT
The modern academic study of management is often traced back to the work of Peter Drucker, an Austrian American management consultant and academic. Drucker's most notable contribution to the field was the Management by Objectives (MBO) approach, which he described in his 1954 book, The Practice of Management. During the 1990s, when John P. Kotter developed the ideas for Leading Change, there was already a growing body of literature about so-called learning organizations, organizational change, and transformation in general. Unlike Kotter's book, Burke and Litwin's paper explores the factors that cause change, not how managers can better bring about change. Similarly, Heather Haveman wrote a paper in 1992 that argued against the position that change was harmful to an organization's performance. Senge and Deming both recognized the importance of globalization and the challenges it represented. Indeed, one of Deming's suggestions to managers in a complex, global economy was to "eliminate management by objectives" and "substitute leadership".
