ABSTRACT
Society funds science to investigate natural phenomena and to inform and solve many discrete problems, including those related to coupled human-environmental systems, marine resources, and more (Lester et al. 2010; America Competes Act 2007; OECD 2002; Bush 1945). This has led scholars to suggest that society values research “not for what it is [but] for what it’s for” (Stokes 1997, p. 98, italics in original). Society can also use relevant scientific information to help inform policy decisions, explore alternatives, manage uncertainties, clarify choices, and develop solutions (Sarewitz and Pielke 2007; Bednarek et al. 2011). A broad body of scholarship has indicated a need to more actively link those producing knowledge to those who will use it (Clark and Dickson 2003). A systemic shift to producing more useful science requires attention to the practice of science, as well as to the approaches for funding and evaluating science (Sarewitz and Pielke 2007). However, the science system-its institutions, incentives, and cultural norms-is largely failing to address this challenge (McNie 2007).
