ABSTRACT
This chapter examines the practice of cyber-attribution, the challenges of attributing to nation-state actors, and efforts to institutionalize transnational attribution. Looking at attributions made from 2016 to 2018, we find a shift toward attributions by nonstate actors and varying approaches taken by some states. New technical approaches reliant on observable artifacts occurring in private networks and behavioral differences of states highlight the need for institutionalizing neutral, transnational attribution where evidence can be assessed and independently reviewed. Several proposals have been made toward this end offering different structures, scopes of activities, and participants. Most recently, a network of university, civil society, and industry-based researchers have sought to develop attribution capabilities that are considered scientific and credible by the broader community. Numerous challenges remain to this collective action. However, if successful, it could effectively counter state-sponsored or affiliated cyber-attacks and the strategic use of attribution.
