Conclusion

The pro-government militias in Thailand's Deep South, the martial arts groups (MAGs)/ritual arts groups (RAGs) in Timor-Leste, and the Pancasila Youth, which were pro-Suharto gangs in Indonesia, were once loose organizations that, over time, gained more robust structure and expanded network as a result of deliberate state efforts. Overlapping memberships, fluid identities, licit and illicit incomes characterize these groups. A conflict-affected environment drives recruitment in general to irregular forces, as do kinship and ethnic identities. Irregular forces in Southeast Asia thrive under changing political environments that offer a variety of incentives for organizational evolution. Democratization in Indonesia and Timor-Leste provided fertile ground for new violent entrepreneurs to emerge, resulting in rivalries for control of territory. The objectives and means of sustaining the organizations have also shifted toward the electoral arena. The irregular forces covered in this book show surprising adaptability to changed political milieus.