ABSTRACT
This chapter examines how counterspeech influences audiences, based on findings from the media effects and persuasion literature. Counterspeech, at its core, uses information to dissuade audiences away from using hate speech or being harmed by its effects. Separate audiences engage differently with hate speech and counterspeech. As such, this chapter bases its analysis on four distinct audiences – hate groups, violent extremists, the vulnerable, and the public (or bystanders). It examines five unique “effects” in relation to these audiences when counterspeech is used. The first involves “reframing”, which typically uses empathy to rehumanize groups targeted for hate. The second uses “cognitive dissonance”, which refers to discomfort hateful speakers face when counterspeech messaging highlights their logical inconsistencies. The third is the “spiral of silence”, which describes the pressure on hateful speakers to disengage due to the fear of online social isolation as counterspeakers change online norms and eliminate environments supportive of hate. The fourth effect is termed “two-step flow” and describes the process of using credible sources to influence audiences. Finally, “herding” refers to the influence counterspeech can have when anti-hate messaging dominates the online narrative and influences vulnerable audiences to adopt the popular position due to its dominance.
