ABSTRACT
This chapter begins by introducing definitions and kinds of online hate being used in contemporary public and scholarly discourse and examines the current estimates of the prevalence for each kind. It then offers a relational taxonomy of online hate as a novel organizing framework that differentiates these various forms of online hate as a function of the perpetrator-to-target relationship (one-on-one, many-to-one, and intergroup level) and the broadcast nature (private versus public) of online hate messages. The chapter also details how the features and affordances found in popular social media platforms contribute to the creation and dissemination of hate messages by perpetrators. It then shifts to the perspective of targets, first providing an overview of the effects of online hate on individual victims, and then to observers, who function alternatively as active responders or passive bystanders within social media audiences. The chapter concludes with an examination of the remedies and solutions to online hate, which have been proposed both online and offline and the gaps that remain to date.
