ABSTRACT
In the final chapter, Udo Merkel cautiously compares the findings of the previous chapters in order to identify, explain and critically evaluate commonalities and differences. That is, of course, the essence and desired outcome of any cross-cultural, comparative study. They offer countries opportunities to learn from each other, facilitate socio-economic, political and cultural co-operation, avoid re-inventing the wheel and support professionals involved in policy development. The structure of this chapter derives from those stakeholders that have been analysed in great detail in the previous country case studies. These include the performers (players, coaches, and match officials), the spectators, the local clubs, national and international governing bodies, and nation-states and their governments. Key themes are the varied manifestations and targets of racism, xenophobia, antisemitism and Islamophobia in European football; the factors that appear to contribute to the deviant behaviour of some football fans; the double-edged nature of football offering opportunities for both integration and discrimination; the contested role of diaspora clubs in modern societies; the scapegoating process; double standards; the lack of diversity in key management and coaching positions; national identity discourses and the role of others; the efficacy of various policies, strategies and initiatives tackling discriminatory practices and abuse in football; and several others.
