ABSTRACT
This chapter examines the technologies underpinning the production of energy carriers, such as hydrogen and synthetic fuels, and explores the critical role of energy storage systems (ESSs) in balancing renewable energy supply and demand. As renewable energy systems (RESs) increasingly rely on electricity as a primary energy carrier, attention turns to the challenges posed by hard-to-abate sectors that cannot be readily electrified, such as long-distance transport and high-temperature industrial processes.
Chemical energy carriers, including biofuels and synthetic e-fuels, emerge as key solutions for these sectors. The chapter discusses the production of biofuels through thermochemical processes using biomass, as well as the potential of electro-synthesis technologies to create e-fuels from RES-generated electricity, water, and carbon dioxide. While biofuels currently represent the most viable alternative, the technological readiness of e-fuels is advancing.
The chapter also addresses the growing demand for ESSs to counter the non-programmable nature of RESs like solar and wind. Electrochemical battery systems (BESSs) dominate the landscape, with rapid deployment, particularly in East Asia. Alternatives like invertible fuel cells, which store electricity in the form of hydrogen and oxygen, offer promising solutions for long-term storage and energy distribution, despite lower readiness levels.
By highlighting these technologies, the chapter underscores their combined potential to enable a fully RES-based energy system, emphasizing the strategic importance of advancing both immediate and emerging solutions.
