ABSTRACT
This chapter discusses Human-Centred Design (HCD) strategies and Human Factors challenges for remote operation of autonomous urban ferries, based on the development and operation of MF Estelle, the world’s first commercial autonomous passenger ferry. It demonstrates how iterative design, user participation, and safety validation can translate autonomy concepts into safe practice and exemplify the Safety by Design approach. The work unfolds through three main phases: (1) real-world trials with milliAmpere2 provided insights into user needs, operational contexts, and early interface requirements; (2) iterative Human–Machine Interface (HMI) design for MF Estelle focused on improving usability, automation transparency, and cognitive workload management through user testing and feedback; and (3) a CRIOP (Crisis Intervention and Operability Analysis) evaluation of HMI design and a prototype Remote Operation Centre (ROC), conducted to verify and validate the design against industry best practices and standards. Findings from the HMI design journey highlight the importance of intuitive interface layouts, standardised symbology, and practical information prioritisation to support operators’ situational awareness and decision-making. The CRIOP evaluation further revealed challenges related to maintaining meaningful human control (MHC), managing cognitive workload, training, and ensuring effective emergency response capabilities within the ROC. A key learning from this multi-phase process is that the iterative approach enables consistent, cumulative refinement of design solutions, with each phase informing the following and progressively embedding safety considerations from early trials to system-level validation. Finally, the chapter presents practical design and human factors engineering recommendations that operationalise Safety by Design in the development of autonomous ferries. It also explores key operational questions related to remote operator roles, passenger management, and emergency response, offering insights relevant for future ROC development.
