ABSTRACT
The Egyptian authorities have been concerned since the mid-20th century about teachers who also work as private supplementary tutors, yet regulations promulgated in 1947 in reality provided precedents of administrative ineffectiveness rather than control. From the 1950s, strengthened in 1986, the authorities encouraged in-school fee-charging tutoring as a strategy to reduce demand for external tutoring, but this move also had limited effectiveness. In the 1970s, tutorial centres emerged alongside tutoring by individual teacher-tutors. The centres particularly flourished from the 1990s onwards, still in many cases employing teachers on a part-time basis. After consistent shortcomings in policy enactment, 2018 reformers tried to harness tutoring rather than continue with regulations that were not followed. Nevertheless, the culture of shadow education is deeply entrenched and likely to persist.
