ABSTRACT
Chapter 5 describes how school-aged children learn basic skills, particularly literacy (reading and writing) and numeracy (mathematics). Despite increased school enrollment, considerable research—in particular related to Early Grade Reading Assessments (EGRA) carried out in dozens of countries—has demonstrated that actual learning outcomes remain far below sufficient in low-income countries, due mainly to inadequate resources, teacher shortages, and inappropriate instructional methods. The chapter discusses the critical role language of instruction plays in multilingual contexts, underscoring the effectiveness of mother-tongue instruction in enhancing learning. It stresses the need for educational systems to bridge home-school cultural divides, encouraging inclusive policies sensitive to diverse linguistic environments. Additionally, the chapter analyzes the role of socio-emotional learning in effective approaches to support basic skills. Research on programs that support out-of-school children as well as those with learning disabilities are also reviewed. In sum, much remains to be done to help children of primary school age, but good pathways are now beginning to open for children at risk.
