ABSTRACT
The multifunctional landscapes of Nepal's middle hills deliver ecosystem services for livelihoods, income, and environmental preservation. Community forestry has prospered in Nepal, supporting rural livelihoods since the 1970s. Yet, growing trees outside formal forests provides greater access to forest products and promoted positive environmental outcomes in many locations. In recent decades, out-migration and shifting livelihoods have resulted in forest regeneration on abandoned agricultural lands. This is a rapidly evolving context, and questions have emerged as to how community forestry and the management of trees outside forests can be integrated at the landscape level to ensure livelihood benefits as well as the revival and sustainability of forest ecosystems. Through case studies and a review of published literature, this chapter on private and community forestry systems could be integrated at the landscape level for improved ecological outcomes and more equitable livelihood benefits.
