ABSTRACT
From a geo-hydrological perspective, the Okavango basin is part of the bigger Makgadikgadi basin situated in arid to semi-arid south-western Africa, with Angola, Botswana and Namibia as riparians of the whole basin. As a result of climatic variations (some ephemeral rivers do not carry water throughout the whole year) and changing interconnectedness (or rather discontinuous outflow of water from the delta to downstream rivers such as the Boteti) of the bigger system, the Okavango basin is treated as its own system with perennial flowing rivers. In most years, the system is endoreic (it has terminal lakes and an interior drainage basin). Zambia’s hydrologic connection to the basin is based on backwards flooding in exceptionally wet years only, when Okavango waters enter the Chobe, a Zambezi tributary. Of the four aforementioned states, only Angola, Botswana and Zambia
share the Okavango river basin. A massive 95% of the runoff contributing to the water flows of the basin and the inland delta originates from the Angolan mountainous regions, feeding the headwaters of the main tributaries, Cuito and Cubango. The contribution of both Namibia and Botswana to the basin’s runoff is only minor. The basin’s world-famous inland delta, situated in northern Botswana, is the world’s largest Ramsar site since accession in 1996. It is home to a rich and unique range of wildlife and endemic species and constitutes a refuge for mammals in search of drinking water in an otherwise dry and arid environment. Because of its unique and impressive biodiversity, the site is a major attraction for wildlife-spotting and other tourism activities, an opportunity taken advantage of largely by Botswana. From a water resources and hydropolitics perspective, the basin is char-
acterized as one of the world’s last pristine river ecosystems, with only minor water diversion and withdrawal for human purposes (and if this is done, only as point offtakes, not impeding the flow), allowing the periodic drying and flooding of the delta. The upstream riparian Angola, after decades of civil war, is trying to make
progress on its socioeconomic development in a country that is marked by large-scale destruction and lack of infrastructure. Despite the absence of any major water control and diversion infrastructure in this important upstream part of the basin (which would in fact be a threat to the integrity of the basin’s ecosystem), concern about the area is increasing. With a growing population and increased need for, and interest in, water resource development as a mechanism to promote economic development, the fate of the delta consequent
to unilateral interventions in the basin’s hydrology is at stake. Both the transportation of sediments to the delta and the volumetric flows are important for the dynamics of the Okavango’s ecosystem. Namibia, one of the most arid and hottest countries in the world, has an
interest in withdrawing water for supply to its populated region of Windhoek (thus, out of the basin), in developing small hydropower plants, and also in developing irrigation. Its land access to the basin is a narrow strip of land called the Caprivi strip, where the Kavango (Cubango, in Portuguese) river marks the northern border with Angola. As Namibia’s other water resources are already under full exploitation, a pipeline abstracting water in the Caprivi strip of the Kavango river would be a logical and necessary next step to safeguard the supply of drinking water for the capital. This development is high on the Namibian agenda, as water demand management and reuse of water resources have for a long time been taken seriously by decision-makers. Abstraction by Namibia at present accounts for approximately 24 m. cu m annually, and is the only considerable offtake compared to the other two basin states. This fact and the planning of other hydro-projects (hydropower) are criticized by Botswana and the international community as they would constitute severe interference in the basin and destroy not only the basin’s delicate balance of high and low flow regimes but also Botswana’s economic opportunities. The other basin states criticize the plans as they fear that they could constitute a precedent case for future developments, despite the fact that this specific intervention has been classified as a negligible withdrawal. The consideration of environmental impact assessments as an integral part of the planning process indicates that there is awareness (promoted also by the international community) about adverse effects. This said, it can be summarized that, so far, Botswana, as the downstream
riparian, is the state drawing most benefits for its national economy from the river’s ecosystem services in the form of tourism related to the delta (adopting a ‘high cost, low volume’ policy, achieving the highest possible economic benefits with as little human impact as possible), while Namibia has developed a strong tourism sector in the Caprivi strip. The platform concerned with management of the Okavango basin, the
Permanent Okavango River Basin Water Commission (OKACOM), took up its work in 1994. The creation of this body is seen as a response to unilateral or bilateral development plans causing disputes among the basin’s riparians. It has an advisory capacity with no direct administrative influence, albeit lobbying and influencing the political sphere in many cases. With assistance from Green Cross International (the first organization promoting a multilateral approach), USAID and the African Water Issues Research Unit (regional office in Maun, Botswana), progress was made concerning the flow of information between the riparians, both in terms of information generated through research and of adding to the understanding of the basin’s complex hydrology, and concerning plans and projects envisaged by the individual member states. A project called ‘Every River has its People’ set up a basin-wide
forum for active stakeholder participation in basin management, having an observer status in the OKACOM; common data collection and conclusions drawn from these data have been contributed to mutual planning efforts at the highest political levels by the Global Environmental Facility. The case of the Okavango is thus not only unique on account of its hydro-
ecological characteristics and ecosystem services. The efforts by the international community to bring the riparian states together have yielded noteworthy results, despite initial problems caused by lack of capacity by the states (and OKACOM) to co-ordinate all the external attention. The case can also be seen as a role model for extensive stakeholder involvement (including civil actors’ organizations, not only governmental agencies)—a dimension that many other international river basin initiatives lack and that is believed to have the potential to yield more sustainable consensus among all stakeholders’ varying interests.
