ABSTRACT
Expansion of risk assessment and management methods in industrially developed countries came from two directions in the 1970s: the development of nuclear power plants; and the establishment of environmental protection and occupational safety and health governmental agencies. Over the last century, organizations and institutions have developed a growing capability to create catastrophic accidents. By the early 1990s the engineering and social science stages were fully set for the introduction of HRO research. High reliability organization theory (HRO) research began by investigating reliability enhancing processes in United States (US) navy carrier aviation, the Federal aviation administration's air traffic control operations, and commercial nuclear power plants. Slowly HRO researchers have inculcated into their work both the issues and methods guiding the earlier engineering and social science work. Mathematical attempts to assess and manage risk have their roots in the 1600s and 1700s with questions about gambling, data analysis, and life.
