ABSTRACT
This chapter examines grassroots movements for establishing schools carried out by minority groups in Europe and Japan from the latter half of the 20th century to the present. The line that separates formal and NFE is revisited from the viewpoint of authorization. More concretely, the chapter discusses how authorization has impacted various private education campaigns of ethnic and religious minorities, particularly Muslims in Europe and Korean residents in Japan. As their cultural, ethnic, or religious identities were neglected or discriminated in society, they created spaces where they could feel emancipated. This was done by setting up a school with a culture and environment in line with their own ethnicity or religion.
The biggest challenge these schools face today is that they are often targeted by xenophobic or Islamophobic groups, especially after any incident that can be remotely related to them is reported in the news. For ethnic and religious minorities, their schools are a safe space for identity formation. However, there is also the risk of becoming a bullseye to hostile feelings from other members of society. In the end, this is the challenge a schooled society must face. There are many unexplored possibilities but also many barriers that must be overcome.
