The relation between gender roles and population–environment relationships is clear, but controversial. The new contraceptive technology, which gives women new and powerful controls over their fertility, represents a revolutionary change in gender roles. Like gender definitions, they are deeply embedded in the social conscience, held with great passion, and often supported by religious formulations. The impact of ethnic definitions is of great relevance for population–environment dynamics. A special category of ethnicity has emerged recently in the recognition of the distinctive position, and rights, of what are called indigenous peoples. The relevance for population is similar to that for any ethnic group. There may be differences in fertility and mortality that can be traced either to discrimination or to different cultural practices, and has direct implications for population numbers and growth. Wildlife products of indigenous peoples have been rendered economically of lesser value because of international treaties banning certain trade in wildlife.